Kashmir earthquake

8th October 2005 8:50am
Destructive plate margin (Indian plate forced under Eurasian plate)
7.6 Richter scale
Focus was at a depth of 16 miles

• $5 billion 
• 80000 deaths 
• 3 million people made homeless 
• Landslides 

No hazard management so no disaster planning in place
Training has now been provided to help rebuild more buildings as earthquake resistant

L'Aquila earthquake

6th April 2009 3:32 am
Destructive plate margin (north-south fault line)
6.3 Richter scale 
Focus at a depth of 5 miles

• $15 billion 
• Fires caused more damage 
• 300 deaths 
• 70000 people made homeless 
• Italian prime minister promised to build a new town to replace L'Aquilla

Hospital collapsed when should have withstood the earthquake 
Six seismologists were under a criminal investigation as they didn't predict the earthquake 

Urban Heat Island

Urban areas are warmer than rural areas and this is called the urban heat island. 
On average 1-2'c warmer per year than its surrounding rural areas. 
High pressure systems with clear nights and sunny days tend to increase the intensity. 
Heat islands are the result of five main factors:

1. Anthropogenic heat; heat released by human activity
2. Height and arrangement of buildings; urban areas have more vertical areas which causes insulation that can warm surfaces and cause an albedo 
3. Nature of building materials; concrete will warm more rapidly than mud, I'm cities the surface area exposed is larger so it is able to store the heat and release it slowly over the night
4. The presence of water; if water is present then most of the surplus heat is used as sensible heat to warm the atmosphere 
5. Presence of pollutants; pollutants have both a cooling and a heating effect, photochemical smog can alter the amount of energy flowing in and out of the urban area, dusty cities can reduce the amount of sunshine that reaches the city surface, however the pollutant dome can absorb heat and prevent some of it escaping 

Waste Management

• REDUCE
• REUSE
• RECYCLE 

1. In 2010 each person in the UK produced 452 kg of waste
2. Waste management in the UK is improving 
3. EU targets want 50% of household waste to be recycles by 2020

Landfill

• Cheap way of getting rid of waste
• Releases CO2 and methane, however new technologies that allow gases to be captured can be used 
• Can pollute groundwater, can be specially lined to prevent this
• Waste valuable materials that can be reused or recycled

Composting

• Organic material can be composted by individuals or on a larger scale, 38% of household waste is organic material 
• Household composting reduces cost
• Sustainable as reduces the amount going to landfill
• Has to be managed properly, sorted so that no metal is involved

Recycling 

• Quicker and cheaper than making materials from scratch 
• Uses less energy, 20 times less when making aluminium cans
• Reduces demand for new materials 
• Relies on individuals and some people don't bother 
• Initial investment is required 
• Often is transported abroad to be recycled, in 2005 55% of paper was sent to China

Energy Recovery 

• Burning of materials that can't be recycled to produce heat or electricity 
• Produces CO2 but reduces fossil fuels 
• The Energy Recovery Facility in Sheffield provides heat for 140 building in the city centre 

Reduce and Reuse

• Can be done by individuals  eg reducing the amount of junk mail you receive or by businesses by reducing the packaging on items
• Plastic bottles are easily reused by cans are not 

Urban Regeneration

Gentrification
Gentrification is when wealthier people move into a run down area and regenerate by improving their housing, by adding double glazing, loft conversions and inside bathrooms.
The positive effects of this are that the house prices increase and the area becomes a more affluent area, with more business coming into the area.
The negative effects of this are that the less wealthy residents can not afford to live in this area anymore and the old business and services are forced to shut down to make way for the new services that are required.
E.g. Southville, Bristol 

Partnership schemes
Partnership schemes involve local councils working with businesses and local communities to come up with a regeneration plan for an area.
E.G. Millennium Project, Bristol Harbourside.

Property-Led Regeneration 
Involve building or improving property in an area to change its image and improve the local environment.
These changes encourage further investment and the return of people and business.
E.G. London Thames Gateway.

Responses to global warming

International
Kyoto Protocol aimed to reduce emissions

1. International agreement form in 1997 between 90 countries with the aim to monitor and reduce greenhouse gas emissions
2. The agreement divided the countries into two groups, developed and developing
3. The developed countries agreed to cut emissions by 5 between 2008 and 2012
4. Developing countries didn't have to cut emissions but they had to monitor and report their emissions
5. There was the introduction of carbon credits, if they use less they can sell credits if the use more they have to buy credits

 Problems:

• Four countries with high emissions USA, Australia, China and India didn't join the agreement 
• Australia, India and China have now joined the agreement but USA still haven't
• Countries have failed to meet their targets

This ended in 2012 and in 2009 they agreed the Copenhagen accord, which allows each country to set it's own targets with no penalties given.

National 
Changing the energy mix of a country

• The energy mix is the mix of energy 
• Replacing fossil fuels with nuclear power and renewable energy will reduce greenhouse gases and could reduce climate change
• In UK by 2020, 40% of emission reductions will be achieved by changing the energy mix
• More offshore wind farms are being built
• UK government is encouraging small scale renewable energy projects

but..

• There needs to be more investment in nuclear power and renewable energy before these sources can reach all our energy needs
• Environmental problems with nuclear power

Using new techniques to cut emissions from Power stations

• Carbon capture and storage is a new technology that aims to reduce emissions from power stations
• CCS involves capturing carbon dioxide and transporting it to places where it can be stored safely e.g. in deep geological formations
• CCS has the potential to reduce emissions from power stations by 90%

but..

• The technology is still at developmental stage
• CCS uses fuel and increases the cost of energy 
• Risk of carbon dioxide leaking

Encouraging energy conservation at home 

• This will reduce domestic fuel consumption
• In UK around 15% of emissions reductions by 2020 will be achieved by making homes more energy efficient 
• Government strategies in UK will be providing energy efficiency grants  
• Financial incentives for people who generate their own electricity
• Homes being sold need a energy performance certificate that shows how energy efficient the home is and how efficient it can be 

but..

• Energy saving improvements can have a high initial cost
• Difficult to work out energy efficient some houses are
• Regulations restricting the improvements that can be made to listed buildings

Reducing emissions for transport

• In UK 20% of emission reductions by 2020 by reducing emissions from transport 
• Strategies include encouraging people to buy lower emissions vehicles 
• Financial incentives are offered to encourage people to buy electric and hybrid cars

but..

• There are still lots of older cars with higher emissions on the roads
• Producing hybrid and electric cars use lots of complex technologies, which use lots of energy and produce emissions 

Local
Recycling waste

• Recycling waste helps reduce climate changes because it usually requires less energy
• Reduces landfill waste
• Recycling prevents the release of 10-15 million tonnes of carbon dioxide every year 

but..

• Transporting products can create transport emissions

Using cars less 

• Reduces transport emissions 
• Average car produces 2.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide every year in the UK

but..

• People prefer using cars as they feel safer, and it's faster and more convenient

Buying local 

• Reduces transport emissions 
• Eating seasonal products reduces the need for heated greenhouses

but..

• Many people like having a variety of foods all year round 

Choose energy efficient appliances 

• Reduces fuel consumption 
• Many new appliances are 50% more efficient than older models 

but..

• Throwing away old appliances create lots of waste
• Making new appliances uses energy
• People may be reluctant to spend money on new appliances 

Impact of global warming on the UK

1. Climate will change: 

• Temperature will increase by 3.9'c by 2080
• Winter rainfall will increase by up to 35% in parts
• Summer rainfall will decrease by up to 49% in Southern England

     2. Sea level rise: expected to rise by 13-76cm by 2095, London will be at threat of flooding
     3. Droughts may increase: more frequent and intense
     4. Patterns of agriculture will change

• Temp increase and a longer growing season will increase productivity of some crops eg asparagus 
• Types of farming may shift northwards 
• New crops adapted for warmer climate eg grapes
• Reduced rainfall will increase need for irrigation and water storage schemes

     5. Habitats will change: this can affect ecosystems and lead to species extinction

Millionaire cities, mega cities and world cities

Millionaire cities: Cities with a million people or just over

• In 1950 there were 83 millionaire cities
• In 1997 there were 285
• In 2005 there were 336

Mega cities: Cities with over 10 million people, population density of over 2,000 per km^2 

• Most in developed world 1980's
• By 1995 25% of worlds mega cities were in developed world
• In 2003 just 4% of the worlds population lived in mega cities 

World cities: A world city dominates beyond it's national border: LONDON. A city that acts as a major centre for: 

• Finance
• Trade and business
•  Politics
• Culture
• Science
• Information gathering 
• Publishing and mass media 
• Retail

British Climate

Cool temperate western maritime 

• 4 seasons; coldest in winter, hotter in summer and then cools down through autumn 
• 5' in January and 20' in August 
• Winds are mostly warm south westerlies, cold north winds are also common
• High rainfall all year round 

 There are five main air masses that affect the UK

• Artic maritime: forms over the Artic ocean, brings very cold and wet air
• Polar continental: forms over Siberia, brings cold dry air, can bring snow if the air picks up moisture from the North Sea
• Tropical continental: forms over Africa, brings warm, dry air
• Tropical maritime: forms over Atlantic ocean, brings warm wet air
• Polar maritime: forms over North Atlantic ocean, brings cold, wet air

Depressions

• LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM often below 1,000 mb
• A depression is an area of relatively low atmospheric pressure and is recognised on a weather map by a system of closed isobars with pressure decreasing towards the centre
• Isobars will be close together producing a steep pressure gradient, creating strong winds that flow anticlockwise
• Most depressions that affect the UK form over the Atlantic Ocean where the two air masses polar maritime and tropical maritime meet, where cold dense air meets warm light air
• At the polar front the warm air rises above the cooler dense air and as it does this condensation occurs resulting in a band of clouds and precipitation along the front
• Can occur all throughout the year

Anticyclones

• HIGH PRESSURE SYSTEM 
• Represented on a weather map by a closed system with pressure increasing on isobars towards the centre
• Move slowly and remain stationary over an area for days or even weeks 
• The air in an anticyclone subsides, warming as it falls, producing a decrease in humidity and a lack of cloud and dry conditions
• Winds are weak and flow gently in a clockwise direction in northern hemisphere and anticlockwise in the southern hemisphere
• In winter: cold daytime temps, very cold nighttime temps, clear skies some radiation fogs 
• In summer: hot daytime temps, warm nighttime temps, clear skies, morning mists, thunderstorms may occur

Hurricane Katrina

29th August 2005
Hit the South-East coast USA
strengthened from a cat 1 to a cat 5

Social Impacts 

• 1836 killed
• 300,000 homes destroyed 
• 3 million people without electricity
• Bridges collapsed
• Water supplies damages, 5 dead from waterbourne diseases 
• 18 schools in New Orleans destroyed 

Economic Impacts

• 230,000 jobs lost
• Total damage $300 billion
• 30 oil platform in Gulf of Mexico destroyed 
• Many ports damaged, disrupting the shipping industry

Environmental Impacts

• Sea turtle breeding beaches damaged 
• Flooding caused oil spills
• Flooding of salt marshes caused loss of habitat 

Responses before:

• National Hurricane Centre tracks and predicts hurricanes
• 26th August, NHC issued a hurricane warning 

Responses during/after

• Emergency centres set up
• Coastguard, police, fire and army rescued 50,000
• Charities collected $4 billion

Criticisms 
-Emergency shelters weren't properly prepared
-Wide spread looting in New Orleans
-Not enough transport to help Evacuate 

Cyclone Nargis

2nd May 2008
Hit Burma
Strengthened to a cat 4
215km/h winds and 5m storm surge

Social Impacts

• 140,000 killed at least
• 450,000 homes destroyed
• 4000 schools destroyed
• 205 million people homeless
• 70% had no access to clean water

Economic Impacts

• 600,000 hectares of agricultural land damaged
• 200,000 farm animals killed
• 40% of food stores destroyed 
• Cost $4 billion

Environmental impacts

• 38,000 hectares of mangrove forests destroyed 
• flooding caused erosion and salination of the land

Not prepared?

• Doesn't have a dedicated hurricane monitoring centre
• India warned Burma 48 hours prior, not enough was done
• Warnings had been given on TV and Radio, lots of population do not own these
• No-one knew where to evacuate to

Slow response?

• Refused foreign aid initially
• Ships with aid were refused entry due to fear of war ships
• 19th May aid workers were allowed in

Useful AQA link

Specification
Past papers and Mark schemes

The great storm 1987

1987 Storm – Case Study 
15th of October 1987 

Occurrence

• October 1987 started off fine and dry but quickly became unsettled and wet. In the days before the storm low pressure lingered off the west of Ireland, producing spells of wet weather across Britain.
• Warm air from Africa met cold air from the Atlantic Ocean, causing an intense depression
• The depression developed over the Bay of Biscay on 15th October and moved northwards
• Weather forecasters thought it wouldn’t reach England, but by midnight it had changed course and moved towards the south coast – most people went to bed
  without knowing that there would be very severe winds overnight.
• It was in fact not a hurricane, but a depression.
• Winds were over 100 km/hour and on the coast in
• Hampshire, Sussex and Kent winds reached gale force 11
• There were rapid changes in temperature as the warm front passed over eg. in Farnborough 8.5°C to 17.6°C in 20 minutes.
• By 9am the storm had passed over land and reached the North Sea

Impact

• Winds gusting at up to 100mph
• 18 people killed in England
• 15 million trees were blown down, including 6 of the famous oaks trees in Sevenoaks, some areas lost 97% of their trees, causing a loss of habitat
• Many fell on to roads and railways, causing major transport delays
• Others took down electricity and telephone lines, leaving hundreds of thousands of  homes without electricity.
• A Channel ferry was blown ashore near Folkestone
• Numerous small boats were wrecked or blown away, with one ship at Dover being blown over and a Channel ferry was blown ashore near Folkestone. 
• 4 lives in France were claimed

• Trees blocked roads and railways
• Power lines were taken down
• Caravan parks were wrecked
• Falling masonry and trees damaged and destroyed cars and houses
• Fire brigade had 6000 calls in 24 hours
• Buildings collapsed
• A cross-channel ferry, the MV Hengist, beached at Folkestone
• A ship capsized at Dover
• Cost £15 billion in insurance claims, so premiums went up for everyone next year
• Fallen trees provided new habitats for some animals
• Some plants benefited as there was more light on the forest floor allowing them to grow

Response

• During the evening of 15 October, radio and TV forecasts mentioned strong winds but indicated heavy rain would be the main feature, rather than strong wind. By the time most people went to bed, exceptionally strong winds hadn’t been mentioned in national radio and TV weather broadcasts.
• Warnings of severe weather had been issued, however, to various agencies and emergency authorities, including the London Fire Brigade.
• Perhaps the most important warning was issued by the Met Office to the Ministry of Defence at 0135 UTC, 16 October. It warned that the anticipated consequences of the storm were such that civil authorities might need to call on assistance from the military.
• A great deal of effort and money was put into the post-storm clean-up of forests and wooded areas.
• A few people, such as the writer Oliver Rackham and the charity Common Ground, were active in trying to prevent unnecessary destruction of trees which, although fallen, were still living.
• Most household policies cover storm damage, and thousands of homeowners have already started claims.
• Based on the findings of an internal Met Office enquiry, scrutinised by two independent assessors, various improvements were made. For example, observational coverage of the atmosphere over the ocean to the south and west of the UK was improved by increasing the quality and quantity of observations from ships, aircraft, buoys and satellites, while refinements were made to the computer models used in forecasting.

Causes and main characteristics of an earthquake

STRESS EXCEEDS STRENGTH

1. Earthquakes are causes by the tension that builds up at all three types of plate margins
2. When these plates move past each other it sends out seismic waves, these vibrations are the earthquake
3. The seismic waves spread out from the focus (the place in the atmosphere where the earthquake starts)
4. The epicentre is the point on the Earth's surface where the earthquake is first felt (straight above the focus) 

Other causes of earthquakes:

• Reactivation of old fault lines
• Subsidence as a result of deep mining
• Pressure on surface rocks from water in large reservoirs

There are three types of seismic waves:

• P waves: can travel through solids and liquids, fastest, push and pull.
• S waves: can travel through only solids, waves move the earth at 90' to the direction of travel.
• Surface waves: Travel near the earths crust in either Love waves, through liquids and solids, side to side, or Rayleigh waves, through liquids and solids in a rolling motion

Measurements: 

• Richter scale: measures the magnitude of an earthquake, 1-9+
• Mercalli scale: measures the impacts of an earthquake, 1-12

Evidence for climate change

Observations

• Historical records: such as agricultural reports can show us that there was different conditions in the past
• Weather records: These have been collected since 1861 and can be used to show detailed climate changes over the short period that they have been collected

Physical

• Ice cores: Analysing the gases trapped in the ice cores that scientists drill out of ice sheets they can tell what the temperature was each year, and how it's changed 
• Sea floor sediments: Sediments that are deposited on the see floor can be tested for the chemical composition of the sea water when they were deposited, which again can indicate the temperature of the time period
• Sea level change: Sea level is affected by the volume of water stored as ice. Some valleys formed above sea level are now submerged showing that sea level is rising for example (Poole harbour in Dorset)
• Retreating glaciers: Looking at historical photos scientists can tell where these glaciers were originally and the distance they are now from them indicates climate change

Biological 

• Pollen: Pollen is preserved in sediments, upon analysis scientists can see what plant it came from and therefore the climatic conditions that it needed to live in, this allows them to compare it to what climate pollen is produced in now
• Tree rings: A tree grows a new ring each year, the thickness of the rings indicate the climatic conditions they were in. By taking a core of a tree scientists can see how the climatic conditions have changed each year. 

Charecteristics, causes, prediction and management of Tsunamis

Causes

• Tsunamis are large waves caused by the displacement of large volumes of water. 

• They can be triggered by underwater earthquakes.

• Volcanic eruptions and landslides that slide into the sea can also cause tsunamis. 

• A tsunami will usually be more powerful the closer to land it starts, this is because it loses energy as it travels towards land. 

Characteristics

• In deep open water the waves travel at a very high speed  of 500-900 km/h, with a long wavelength and a small amplitude of about 1m.

• Closer to land in shallower water the waves energy becomes more compressed and therefore more concentrated. So the waves slow down, their wavelength decreases, but their amplitude increases to many metres.

• Just before the wave reaches the coast, the water withdraws down the shore.

Prediction

• Tsunamis warning systems rely on earthquake detection systems.

• Tsunami warning centres are located all around the world (Alaska and Hawaii).

• If people don't have good communication systems they will not receive the warning in enough time to evacuate, especially if the earthquake has happened close to land, then it wont take the tsunami long to reach land.

Management 

• Buildings designed with raised, open foundations and made of a strong material such as concrete are less likely to be damaged by the force of water. 

• In some places, such as Hokkaido, Japan, tsunami walls have been built around settlements to protect them. However waves can be taller than these sea walls.

Redevolpment of one city centre

City Centre: Bristol 

Millennium project
Facts:

• Lottery funded £44.3 million
• £44.4 million from Bristol City Council and commercial partners
• Year 2000
• Fountains
• Public square with statues
• Leisure 
• Car park underneath
• @Bristol and aquarium

 Promises:

• Lively quarter
• New cultural and leisure
• Public spaces with art and water features 
• Pletora of shops
• Housing
• Offices

 Cabot Circus 
Facts: 

• September 2008
• Cost £500 million
• 120 shops, restaurants, mini golf, cinema and cafes 
• 2600 car parking spaces
• 1 million square feet of retail space

Evaluation: 

• Big sphere of influence 
• Revitalised city centre 
• Fought back from out of town shopping centre (cribbs)
• Created a zone of discard (Broadmead)
• Traffic issues 

 

Gentrification and its effects

Gentrification is when wealthier people move into a run down area and regenerate it by improving their housing.

Positive impacts

• Housing is improved (double glazing, central heating, inside toilets)
• Value of houses increase in the area, allowing residents already in the area to sell their houses for more money
• New businesses move into the area to cater for the wealthier residents, such as bars and restaurants, this creates jobs for the lower and middle class as well
• Crime rates may fall, as there are less derelict buildings so less graffiti and vandalism take place

Negative impacts

• High demand for housing could cause problems for current residents, landlords could demand more money from their tenants or kick them out so they can sell the house while it's value is high
• Children of the original homeowners may be unable to afford a property nearby and therefore forced to move out, which can have the negative multiplier effect of the skilled moving out
• The traditional shops such as launderettes and charity shops, that the less affluent residents will need may be forced to shut down to make way for the coffee shops and boutiques that the wealthier desire
• Tension can be caused between the local people and the new residents, quite often forming a social gap 

Main responses to tropical revolving storms

Evacuation:

• When and where tropical storms hit land can be predicted from RADAR, satellites and aircraft. (National Hurricane Centre in USA track hurricanes this way and predict their path)
• This gives people time to evacuate and protect their homes and businesses 
• However if forecasters have got it wrong then unnecessary evacuations and wastes a lot of money

Planning and Education:

• Future developments can be planned to avoid at risk areas, such as the coast
• Emergency services can train and prepare for disasters 
• Evacuation routes can already be planned, have to ensure the population are aware of these
• Cost effective methods

Building techniques:

• Buildings built to withstand TRS, with reinforced concrete or on stilts to avoid flooding (Gulf Coast of USA built on stilts)
• Flood defences built on rivers and coasts

 Aid:

• Aid sent by the government of NGO's can be very effective, once it has reached the people in need. However getting it to those people in need can be very difficult if there is damaged transport routes or often political problems 

Effects of global warming on a monsoon area

Monsoon area: Bangladesh, India 

Possible effects:

• Get hotter (expected to rise by 2-4'c by 2100)
• Seasons could become more pronounced (longer winter droughts but more rain during summer monsoon) 
• Intense rainfall could cause flooding, landslides and crop damage
• Tropical cyclones may increase both intensity and frequency (higher intensity would cause more storm surges and more flooding)
•  Sea level rise will flood many islands and coastal areas (30-100cm by 2100, which would submerge 18% of the land surface)
• Agricultural productivity will decline due to loss of land caused by sea rise and flooding
• Areas that suffer with flooding will be more vunerable to illnesses such as cholera and hepatitis

Formation of tropical revolving storms

1) Tropical revolving storms are huge spinning storms with strong winds and torrential rain.
2) They develop over warm water. As warm moist air rises and condenses, it releases energy that increases wind speed. 
3) The conditions needed are as follows:

• A disturbance near the sea surface that triggers the storm (e.g. an area of low pressure)
• Warm and deep sea water (26.5'c to at least 50m below the surface)
• Convergence of air in the lower atmosphere, either within the trade belt and ITCZ or along the boundary between warm and cold air masses. This forces air to rise
• A location at least 5' from the equator. This is because the Coriolis effect isn't strong enough to make them spin  

4) TRS lose strength when they move over land as their supply of warm moist air is cut off.
5) They move away from the equator because of the Coriolis effect. 
6) Move in an anti-clockwise direction.
7) Strongest winds on the eye wall, with the weakest winds found in the eye.